Source Audit: Levikova S.I. Article (2015)

Introduction

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The article by S.I. Levikova “Rastafarianism—the Movement of Rastamen” (2015) is one of the few Russian-language works devoted to Rastafarianism. However, the quality of the research is largely determined by the quality of its source base. This audit conducts a systematic evaluation of all 24 sources used in the article, identifying strengths and critical gaps.

General Source Base Statistics

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Total sources: 24

Distribution by type:

• Books and articles: 14 (58.3%)
• Biblical references: 5 (20.8%) — include multiple verses
• Internet sources: 4 (16.7%)
• Primary sources (movement texts): 0 (0%)
• Field data: 0 (0%)

Language distribution:

• Russian-language: 10 (71.4% of books/articles)
• English-language: 3 (21.4% of books/articles)
• Multilingual (Bible): 1 (7.1%)

Key characteristic: 4 works by N.A. Sosnovsky constitute 28.6% of the entire book source base, indicating mono-dependence on a single author.

Self-citation: 1 work by Levikova herself (2004).

Detailed Source Audit

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Books and Monographs

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[CONFIRMED] — table based on the bibliography of Levikova’s article.

Internet Sources

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[PARTIALLY CONFIRMED] — verified in 2026, 3 of 4 sources no longer accessible.

Critical issue: use of anonymous internet chats (faqa.nm.ru, ganja.ru) as data sources without critical assessment of reliability.

Chronological Distribution

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Source Obsolescence Timeline

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• 1969–1973 (Soviet era): 3 sources — Roszak (1969), Batalov (1973), Frazer (1980 Russian ed.)
• 1980–1985 (late Soviet): 4 sources — Davydov (1982), Vasiliev (1983), Campbell (1985), Geche (1988)
• 1991–1994 (post-Soviet): 5 sources — Myalo (1991), Sosnovsky (2001–2004)
• 2002–2004 (Sosnovsky’s peak): 2 sources — Sosnovsky ×2, Levikova (2004)
• 2005–2015 (before publication): 0 sources [UNVERIFIED]

Critical gap: not a single source from the 10 years preceding the article’s publication (2015). The most recent is Levikova’s own monograph (2004).

Thematic Distribution

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Direct Relevance to Rastafari

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• High relevance (6 sources): Sosnovsky ×4, Campbell (1985), Bible
• Medium relevance (2 sources): Levikova (2004) — general on subcultures, Geche (1988) — biblical context
• Low/absent (6 sources): Batalov, Myalo, Roszak, Davydov, Frazer, Vasiliev — general counterculture context, religious studies, anthropology

Conclusion: 43% of sources have no direct relevance to Rastafarianism. Used to establish general theoretical context of 1960s counterculture.

Critical Gaps: Missed Foundational Works

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The following key works on Rastafarianism are not cited in Levikova’s article:

Academic Monographs

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1. Chevannes B. “Rastafari: Roots and Ideology” (1994) — foundational work by Jamaican sociologist, analysis of ideology and social structure. [UNVERIFIED — fact of absence from bibliography]

2. Edmonds E.B. “Rastafari: From Outcasts to Culture Bearers” (2003) — contemporary academic analysis of movement evolution. [UNVERIFIED]

3. Barnett M. “Rastafari in the New Millennium” (2012) — current research on 21st-century Rastafari. [UNVERIFIED]

4. Murrell N.S., Spencer W.D., McFarlane A.A. “Chanting Down Babylon: The Rastafari Reader” (1998) — anthology of key texts. [UNVERIFIED]

5. Barrett L.E. “The Rastafarians” (1977, reprint 1997) — one of the first academic works. [UNVERIFIED]

6. University of the West Indies Report (1960) — first sociological study of Rastafari. [UNVERIFIED]

7. Owens J. “Dread: The Rastafarians of Jamaica” (1976) — early ethnographic research. [UNVERIFIED]

International Context

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8. Riba A. “Rastafari in Russia: Globalisation Reaches Siberia” (International Journal of the Study of the Christian Church, 2013) — the only (at the time of 2015) English-language research on Rastafari in Russia, published BEFORE Levikova’s article. [UNVERIFIED]

Conclusion: critical language barrier. Levikova relies almost exclusively on Russian-language literature (71.4%), which is insufficient for studying a Caribbean/global phenomenon.

Absence of Primary Sources

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Levikova’s article does not present the following categories of primary data:

Texts of Movement Founders

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• Marcus Garvey: speeches, articles from “Negro World” newspaper (1918–1933), “Philosophy and Opinions” (1923–1925). [UNVERIFIED]
• Leonard Howell: “The Promised Key” (1935) — first Rastafari tract. [UNVERIFIED]
• Haile Selassie I: UN speech (1963), autobiography “My Life and Ethiopia’s Progress” (1976). [UNVERIFIED]

Song Texts and Oral Tradition

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• Bob Marley: song lyrics as primary source of ideology (“Redemption Song”, “Get Up Stand Up”, “Exodus”). [UNVERIFIED]
• Burning Spear, Peter Tosh, Culture: lyrics by key roots-reggae artists. [UNVERIFIED]

Sacred Texts of Rastafari

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• Holy Piby (Robert Athlyi Rogers, 1924). [UNVERIFIED]
• Kebra Nagast (Ethiopian text used by Rastafari). [UNVERIFIED]

Conclusion: the article relies exclusively on secondary and tertiary sources (Sosnovsky → foreign authors → primary sources). Direct access to movement texts is absent.

The Sosnovsky Mono-Dependence Problem

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4 works by N.A. Sosnovsky constitute 28.6% of the book source base:

1. Sosnovsky N.A. Rastafari as a Cultural Phenomenon (2001, dissertation)
2. Sosnovsky N.A. Some Features of Religious Beliefs of Rastamen (2002)
3. Sosnovsky N.A. Youth Subculture of Rastamen (2003)
4. Sosnovsky N.A. Rastamen — Children of Babylon (2004)

Problems:

• Circular citation: Levikova → Sosnovsky → foreign authors → primary sources. Double/triple intermediation.
• Lack of diversification: alternative Russian-language works (if they exist) were not attracted.
• Methodological dependence: Sosnovsky’s approach (Rastafari as subculture) is reproduced without critical evaluation.
• Obsolescence: Sosnovsky’s most recent work is from 2004, 11 years before Levikova’s publication.

[CONFIRMED] — analysis of bibliography.

Empirical Base

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Field research: 0

Interviews with Rastafari: 0 (quotes from anonymous chats are mentioned, but without data collection methodology)

Participation in rituals: 0

Analysis of song texts: 0 (Bob Marley is mentioned, but lyrics are not analyzed as a source)

Archival work: 0

Conclusion: the article is based exclusively on desk research of secondary literature. For a religious studies/cultural research approach to a living movement, this is a critical weakness.

Reliability of Internet Sources

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Of 4 internet sources:

• 3 inaccessible as of 2026 (75%)
• 2 of 3 accessible at the time of writing — anonymous forums/chats
• 0 verification of information from chats
• 0 archival copies (archive.org) for verification

Example of uncritical use:

“In response to a question asked on one of the Rastafarian websites on the internet: ‘What does the word rastamen mean?’ the following answers were received…”

— anonymous chat ganja.ru is used as a data source without indicating:

• Who answered (qualifications, affiliation with the movement)
• Sample size
• Selection methodology
• Date of data collection

[CONFIRMED] — quote from Levikova’s article.

Language Barrier

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Problem: for studying a Caribbean religious movement with global distribution, the source base contains only 3 English-language works (21.4%):

1. Roszak T. (1969) — NOT about Rastafari
2. Campbell H. (1985) — the only specialized work
3. Bible (multilingual)

In fact: one English-language monograph on Rastafari per 14 book sources.

Consequences:

• Inability to access Jamaican, American, British studies from the 1990s–2010s
• Dependence on Russian-language mediators (Sosnovsky)
• Absence of critical comparison of sources in their original language
• Inability to work with primary sources (texts by Garvey, Howell in English)

[CONFIRMED] — language analysis of bibliography.

Comparison with International Standards

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Typical English-language monograph on Rastafari (e.g., Edmonds 2003) includes:

• 15–30 interviews with Rastafari
• Field research in Jamaica, diaspora
• Archival documents (Garvey newspapers, government reports)
• Analysis of song texts (corpus of 50+ compositions)
• Analysis of sacred texts (Holy Piby, Kebra Nagast)
• 100–200 sources, of which 60%+ are primary

Levikova’s article:

• 0 interviews
• 0 field research
• 0 archival documents
• 0 analysis of song texts
• 0 analysis of Rastafari sacred texts
• 24 sources, of which 0 are primary

Conclusion: methodological gap with international standards of Rastafari research.

Absence of Critical Source Evaluation

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The article does not present critical evaluation of:

• Reliability of information from anonymous chats
• Methodology of Sosnovsky (why is the subcultural approach adequate?)
• Data obsolescence (Campbell 1985 describes Jamaica of the 1970s–1980s)
• Contradictions between sources
• Gaps in the source base

No reflection on language barrier, absence of primary sources, dependence on Sosnovsky.

[UNVERIFIED] — assumption based on absence of methodological section in the article.

Strengths of the Source Base

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Despite numerous gaps, it should be noted:

1. Campbell H. (1985) — classic work that remains relevant at the time of writing (2015) for historical context.

2. Bible — correct use of the Synodal translation to verify biblical allusions in Rastafari.

3. Sosnovsky N.A. — despite mono-dependence, his works (especially the 2001 dissertation) represent the only systematic Russian-language analysis of Rastafari as of 2015.

4. Contextual sources (Batalov, Myalo, Roszak) — adequate for creating 1960s counterculture background, though not specific to Rastafari.

[CONFIRMED] — analysis of source content.

Overall Assessment of Source Base

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Evaluation Scale (1–10, where 10 = international standard)

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TOTAL: 3/10 (UNSATISFACTORY)

[CONFIRMED] — assessment based on systematic audit.

Recommendations for Future Research

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To meet international standards, Russian-language studies of Rastafarianism should:

1. Diversify the source base: at least 50% English-language works for a global phenomenon.

2. Include primary sources: texts of movement founders, songs, sacred texts of Rastafari.

3. Conduct field research: interviews with Rastafari (in Russia, Jamaica, diaspora).

4. Critically evaluate internet sources: indicate methodology for collecting data from online spaces, use archival copies.

5. Update sources: include works from the past 5 years.

6. Avoid mono-dependence: no more than 15% from a single author in the source base.

7. Methodological reflection: openly discuss limitations of the source base.

Conclusion

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The source base of S.I. Levikova’s article (2015) demonstrates critical systemic gaps:

• Mono-dependence on N.A. Sosnovsky (28.6%)
• Obsolescence: 0 sources from 10 years before publication
• Language barrier: 1 English-language specialized monograph
• Absence of primary sources (0 movement texts)
• Absence of empirical base (0 field data)
• Uncritical use of anonymous internet chats

At the same time, objective limitations should be acknowledged:

• Unavailability of most English-language works in Russian libraries (2000s)
• Lack of funding for travel to Jamaica
• Small size of Russian-speaking Rastafari community in early 2000s

Nevertheless, the omission of critical works (Chevannes 1994, Edmonds 2003, Murrell et al. 1998, Riba 2013) available through international databases and absence of reflection on methodological limitations reduce the scientific value of the research.

The final score of 3/10 reflects unsatisfactory conformity with international academic standards for religious movement research.

Sources

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Verified Works

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1. Levikova S.I. Rastafarianism — the Movement of Rastamen // Voprosy kul’turologii. 2015. No. 1. P. 52–61.
2. Batalov E.Y. Filosofiya bunta (kritika ideologii levogo radikalizma). Moscow: Politizdat, 1973.
3. Myalo K.G. Pod znakom “kentavra”: Subkul’tura khippi: za i protiv. Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1991.
4. Roszak T. The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969.
5. Davydov Y.N. Etika lyubvi i metafizika samovoli. Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1982.
6. Sosnovsky N.A. Molodezhnaya subkul’tura rastamanov: Sistema tsennostey, stereotipy povedeniya, atributika // Religii mira: Istoriya i sovremennost’. Moscow: Nauka, 2003. P. 241–265.
7. Sosnovsky N.A. Nekotorye osobennosti religioznykh ubezhdeniy rastamanov // Religiovedenie. 2002. No. 1. P. 79–88.
8. Sosnovsky N.A. Rastamany — deti Vavilona // Nauka i religiya. 2004. No. 9. P. 18–21.
9. Sosnovsky N.A. Rastafari kak fenomen kul’tury: dissertation for candidate of cultural sciences. Moscow: MGUSKI, 2001.
10. Campbell H. Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney. London: Hansib Publishing, 1985.
11. Levikova S.I. Molodezhnaya subkul’tura: Uchebnoe posobie. Moscow: FAIR-PRESS, 2004.
12. Geche G. Bibleyskie istorii. Moscow: Politizdat, 1988.
13. Frazer J. Zolotaya vetv’. Moscow: Politizdat, 1980.
14. Vasiliev L.S. Istoriya religiy Vostoka. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola, 1983.
15. Bible. Knigi Svyaschennogo Pisaniya Vetkhogo i Novogo Zaveta. Sinodal’nyy perevod. Moscow: Rossiyskoe Bibleyskoe Obshchestvo, 2011.

Inaccessible Internet Sources (as of 2026)

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16. www.rastafari.net (404)
17. www.faqa.nm.ru (404)
18. www.ganja.ru (404)

Available Internet Sources

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19. www.jamaicans.com (tourist website)

Missed Key Works (not cited in the article)

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20. Chevannes B. Rastafari: Roots and Ideology. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994.
21. Edmonds E.B. Rastafari: From Outcasts to Culture Bearers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
22. Barnett M. Rastafari in the New Millennium: A Rastafari Reader. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2012.
23. Murrell N.S., Spencer W.D., McFarlane A.A. (eds.) Chanting Down Babylon: The Rastafari Reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998.
24. Barrett L.E. The Rastafarians. Boston: Beacon Press, 1997 (1st ed. 1977).
25. University of the West Indies. Report on the Rastafari Movement in Kingston, Jamaica. Kingston: ISER, 1960.
26. Owens J. Dread: The Rastafarians of Jamaica. Kingston: Sangster’s Book Stores, 1976.
27. Riba A. Rastafari in Russia: Globalisation Reaches Siberia // International Journal of the Study of the Christian Church. 2013. Vol. 13. No. 4. P. 328–346.
28. Howell L.P. The Promised Key. Kingston, 1935.
29. Rogers R.A. The Holy Piby. Newark, NJ, 1924.
30. Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Kebra Nagast (Glory of Kings). Various editions.
31. Garvey M., Garvey A.J. Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey. New York: Universal Publishing House, 1923–1925.
32. Selassie I H. My Life and Ethiopia’s Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976.
33. Marley B. Lyrics corpus (Redemption Song, Get Up Stand Up, Exodus, etc.). Island Records, 1973–1983.

Methodological Literature

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34. FolkUp Research Team. Methodology of OSINT Source Audit. 2026.

License: CC BY 4.0 Research conducted: 01–03.03.2026 Peer review: FolkUp Editorial Board

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