The History of Rastafarianism: From Garvey to Globalization

Introduction

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The history of Rastafarianism is a history of paradoxes. A movement founded on the prophecy of Marcus Garvey, which Garvey himself later condemned. A religion that deifies Emperor Haile Selassie I, who never accepted this deification. An Afrocentric movement whose roots run deep into the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition, which criticizes Rastafari for appropriating its sacred texts.

This article explores the history of Rastafarianism from its origins in the Pan-African movement of the 1910s to its modern global presence, covering key figures, events, and transformations over nearly a century.

Marcus Garvey and UNIA: The Foundation of Pan-Africanism (1914-1927)

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The Founding of the Movement

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[CONFIRMED] Marcus Mosiah Garvey (1887-1940) founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in July 1914 in Kingston, Jamaica[1]. Initially, the organization was modest—just a handful of members in Jamaica.

A turning point came in 1916 when Garvey moved to Harlem, New York. [CONFIRMED] By 1917, the Harlem branch of UNIA had only 17 members, but by 1919 the organization had grown to over 2 million participants with 700 branches worldwide[2].

“Back to Africa” and the Black Star Line

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Central to Garvey’s vision was the concept of “Back to Africa”—the physical repatriation of people of African descent to the African continent. [CONFIRMED] On June 27, 1919, Garvey founded the Black Star Line, a steamship company designed to establish trade and transportation links between the African diaspora and Africa[3].

The company acquired several vessels and sold shares to UNIA members, raising substantial sums. However, the enterprise encountered financial difficulties, fraud accusations, and ultimately collapsed. In 1923, Garvey was convicted of mail fraud (a charge disputed as politically motivated), imprisoned in 1925, pardoned by President Coolidge in 1927, and deported to Jamaica[4].

The “Look to Africa” Prophecy

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[PARTIALLY] The most significant contribution Garvey made to the birth of Rastafarianism was the prophecy attributed to him: “Look to Africa, when a black king shall be crowned, for the day of deliverance is near”[5].

The dating of this prophecy is contested. Some sources place it in a 1916 speech, others in 1920[6]. There is no consensus on whether Garvey spoke these exact words or whether this is a later paraphrase of his ideas. Nevertheless, this prophecy became the theological foundation for early Rastafari, who saw its fulfillment in the coronation of Haile Selassie I in 1930.

The Paradox: Garvey Rejected Rastafari

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[CONFIRMED] The irony of history is that Marcus Garvey himself not only failed to support the Rastafarian movement but actively condemned it.

Following the Italo-Ethiopian War (1935-1936), when Ethiopia was occupied by fascist Italy, Garvey sharply criticized Emperor Haile Selassie I. In his publications in the newspaper The Black Man, Garvey called Selassie a hypocrite and coward for fleeing into exile rather than resisting the occupiers[7]. He wrote that the aristocratic elite of Ethiopia had betrayed their people, and that Selassie did not deserve deification.

Garvey also criticized the Rastafarian movement for abandoning practical struggle for Black liberation in favor of mystical worship of a distant emperor. He believed that faith in Selassie’s divinity distracted from real political work to improve the conditions of the African diaspora[8].

Thus, a movement that considered Garvey a prophet was rejected by the prophet himself.

The Coronation of Haile Selassie I: The Theophany of 1930

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“King of Kings, Lion of the Tribe of Judah”

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[CONFIRMED] On November 2, 1930, in Addis Ababa, the coronation ceremony took place for Ras Tafari Makonnen as Emperor of Ethiopia under the name Haile Selassie I (“The Power of the Trinity”)[9].

The coronation ceremony lasted five hours and was one of the most lavish events of its time[10]. Selassie received the titles: “Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, King of Kings of Ethiopia, Elect of God, Lord of Lords”[11].

These titles, drawn from the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition and the medieval text Kebra Nagast (see below), carried deep biblical resonances. The phrase “Lion of the Tribe of Judah” is a direct allusion to the Book of Revelation 5:5: “Behold, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has prevailed.”

Global Resonance

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[CONFIRMED] The coronation received widespread international press coverage. Time magazine published detailed reports, and photographs and film footage of the ceremony were distributed worldwide[12]. News of the coronation reached Jamaica, where the Black population, oppressed by the colonial system, enthusiastically received word of a Black emperor ruling an independent African nation.

For those who remembered Marcus Garvey’s prophecy, the coronation of a “Black king” in Africa seemed like the literal fulfillment of the prediction.

Theology of Haile Selassie as God

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Early Rastafari interpreted the coronation as a theophany—the manifestation of God in human form. Several factors contributed to this interpretation:

1. The title “King of Kings” — in Christian tradition, this is the name of Jesus Christ (Revelation 19:16)[13].
2. The Solomonic Dynasty — Ethiopian tradition claims that the imperial dynasty descends from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, connecting Selassie with the biblical genealogy of Christ[14].
3. An independent Black nation — Ethiopia was one of only two African countries (along with Liberia) that avoided European colonization during the era of imperialism[15].
4. Symbolic dating — some Rastafari attributed mystical significance to the coronation date (November 2), though this was not confirmed as a deliberately chosen date[16].

Leonard Howell and Pinnacle: From Preaching to Commune (1932-1958)

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“The First Rasta”

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[CONFIRMED] Leonard Percival Howell (1898-1981) is considered the “first Rastafarian”—the first preacher to publicly proclaim the divinity of Haile Selassie I in Jamaica[17].

Howell returned to Jamaica in 1932 after many years of travel (including time in the USA, where he likely heard Marcus Garvey). [CONFIRMED] By 1933, he began preaching in rural Jamaica, proclaiming that Haile Selassie I was the returned Christ, the true God, and that Black people should deny loyalty to the British Crown and render honor only to the Ethiopian emperor[18].

This preaching was radical and dangerous in the colonial context. Howell was arrested in 1934 on charges of inciting rebellion. He was convicted and sentenced to two years in prison[19].

“The Promised Key” (1935)

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[CONFIRMED] Around 1935, Howell published a pamphlet titled The Promised Key under the pseudonym G.G. Maragh[20]. The text presented an early exposition of Rastafarian theology, proclaiming Selassie as the living God and calling for the liberation of the Black race.

The pamphlet was banned by colonial authorities but circulated underground and became a foundational text for early Rastafari.

The Pinnacle Commune (1940-1958)

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[CONFIRMED] After his release from prison, Howell founded a commune called Pinnacle in 1940 on an abandoned estate of approximately 400 acres (162 hectares) in the hills of St. Catherine, Jamaica[21].

[CONFIRMED] At its peak, Pinnacle had approximately 800 residents[22]. The commune was self-sufficient—residents grew vegetables, raised livestock, and produced crafts. A distinctive Rastafari culture developed here: ritual use of cannabis (“ganja”), Africanized forms of music (proto-Nyabinghi drumming), and, notably, the birth of dreadlocks.

[CONFIRMED] Dreadlocks emerged in Pinnacle in the 1940s as an outward expression of a Nazarite vow (similar to the biblical Samson) and protest against colonial beauty standards[23]. Rastafari with dreadlocks came to call themselves “Dreads.”

Repression and Destruction

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Colonial Jamaican authorities viewed Pinnacle as a threat. [CONFIRMED] The commune was subjected to systematic police raids:

• January 1941: first major raid, approximately 70 arrests[24].
• May 22, 1954: large-scale raid, hundreds arrested for cannabis possession[25].
• 1958: final raid, destruction of the commune, arrest of Howell[26].

Following the destruction of Pinnacle, many Rastafari scattered throughout Jamaica, especially to the slums of Kingston (West Kingston, Trench Town, Denham Town, Back-o-Wall). Paradoxically, this dispersal contributed to the spread of Rastafarian culture across the island.

Leonard Howell spent his final decades in relative isolation, suffering from mental illness (possibly exacerbated by torture in prison). He died in 1981, recognized as the “father of Rastafari,” but largely forgotten[27].

The Paradox: Selassie Rejected Deification

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An Orthodox Christian

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[CONFIRMED] Haile Selassie I was throughout his life a believer in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church—one of the world’s oldest Christian churches, tracing back to the 4th century[28]. He regularly attended services, observed Orthodox fasts, and participated in church sacraments.

[CONFIRMED] Selassie never publicly accepted Rastafari’s assertion of his divinity. In interviews with journalists, he denied being God and stated that he was a mortal man[29]. In 1967, he told a Canadian journalist: “I am not God. I am a man, mortal”[30].

Silent Tolerance

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[CONFIRMED] Yet Selassie never publicly condemned the Rastafarian movement and never called on Rastafari to cease worshipping him. This silence was interpreted by Rastafari in various ways:

• Some believed that Selassie could not openly accept his divinity because it would contradict his role as an Orthodox emperor.
• Others believed that the silence was a form of wisdom—allowing people to arrive at truth themselves.
• Still others saw political pragmatism in it—Rastafari were allies of Ethiopia in the diaspora[31].

Criticism from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

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[CONFIRMED] The Ethiopian Orthodox Church criticized Rastafari for appropriating Ethiopian religious traditions and distorting the Orthodox faith[32]. The Church particularly objected to Rastafari’s use of the text Kebra Nagast (see below) and claims of the emperor’s divinity, which contradicted Christian doctrine.

This created a paradoxical situation: a religion that considers Ethiopia its spiritual homeland was rejected by Ethiopia’s religious establishment.

Selassie’s Visit to Jamaica (1966): “Liberation Before Repatriation”

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April 21, 1966

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[CONFIRMED] On April 21, 1966, Emperor Haile Selassie I made an official visit to Jamaica—the only time in history that he visited the island whose population worshipped him as God[33].

[CONFIRMED] Approximately 100,000 Rastafari gathered at Palisadoes Airport to greet the emperor[34]. The scene was chaotic: the crowd broke through barriers, people attempted to touch the plane, police tried to contain the masses. Selassie was unable to leave the plane for more than an hour.

Ras Mortimer Planno

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[CONFIRMED] Ras Mortimer Planno (1929-2006)—an influential Rastafarian elder and teacher—played a decisive role. Planno negotiated with authorities and persuaded the crowd to stand back, allowing the emperor to exit the plane safely[35].

Planno was invited to meet with Selassie and became an unofficial representative of Rastafari during the visit. He later became a mentor to young Bob Marley.

Gold Medallions and Directive

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[CONFIRMED] During the visit, Selassie presented gold medallions to leaders of the Rastafarian community, including Mortimer Planno[36]. The medallions bore the image of the lion and were perceived as a sign of recognition of Rastafari.

[CONFIRMED] Selassie also gave Rastafari a directive that became known as “Liberation Before Repatriation”: before returning to Africa, they must first liberate Jamaica[37]. This message shifted the focus of many Rastafari from physical repatriation to the struggle for social justice in Jamaica.

Grounation Day

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[CONFIRMED] April 21 became a holy day in the Rastafarian calendar—Grounation Day. Annually, Rastafari celebrate this day as one of the most significant events in the history of the movement[38].

Mansions of Rastafari: Organizational Diversity

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Rastafarianism is not a single organization with centralized doctrine. Instead, it is divided into several “mansions” or “houses”—groups with different theologies, practices, and social organization.

Nyahbinghi (Nyabinghi)

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[CONFIRMED] Nyahbinghi is the oldest and most traditional mansion of Rastafari[39]. The name derives from an East African anti-colonial resistance cult in Uganda and Rwanda in the early 20th century (“Nyabinghi” means “death to black and white oppressors”)[40].

Characteristics of Nyahbinghi:

• Theology: Haile Selassie I is the living God, a trinity (Theocratic Trinity: Haile Selassie, Marcus Garvey, Emmanuel Charles Edwards)[41].
• Practices: Nyabinghi drumming (ritual percussion music), Reasoning (philosophical discussions), use of cannabis as a sacrament.
• Social structure: decentralized, without formal hierarchy. Elders are respected for their knowledge and experience.
• Self-identification: Nyahbinghi often call themselves “warrior-priests.”

Nyahbinghi has no official church or temple. Gatherings take place at “grounations”—ritual assemblies with drums, singing, and collective prayers[42].

Bobo Ashanti (Bobo Shanti)

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[CONFIRMED] Bobo Ashanti (also Bobo Shanti) was founded in 1958 by Prince Emmanuel Charles Edwards (1915-1994)[43].

Characteristics of Bobo Ashanti:

• Theology: A trinity of divinity—Haile Selassie I as King, Marcus Garvey as Prophet, Prince Emmanuel as High Priest[44].
• Practices: strict observance of Mosaic law (Sabbath on Saturday, kosher-like dietary laws, regular fasts).
• Clothing: characteristic turbans, long garments, often concealing dreads.
• Politics: emphasis on reparations for slavery and immediate repatriation to Africa.
• Segregation: some Bobo communities practice gender separation during rituals[45].

Bobo Ashanti live in communes (for example, Bobo Hill in Bull Bay, Jamaica). They are considered the most conservative and insular mansion[46].

Twelve Tribes of Israel

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[CONFIRMED] Twelve Tribes of Israel was founded in 1968 by Vernon Carrington, known as Prophet Gad (1935-2005)[47].

Characteristics of Twelve Tribes:

• Theology: Haile Selassie I is Jesus Christ in the flesh, but not in a literal sense of the Trinity. Greater emphasis on Christ as the central figure[48].
• Membership: determined by month of birth. Each month corresponds to one of the twelve tribes of Israel (for example, January is Reuben, February is Simeon, etc.)[49].
• Practices: regular Bible reading (one chapter per day), less emphasis on ritual drumming.
• Social position: the most “respectable” and liberal mansion. Accepts education, technology, engagement with “Babylon” (secular society).
• Music: close connection with Bob Marley, who joined Twelve Tribes in the 1970s[50].

Twelve Tribes has international branches and is most active in missionary work among the diaspora[51].

Other Mansions

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Beyond these three main groups, there are dozens of smaller groups and independent “houses,” each with their own doctrinal nuances. Some Rastafari belong to no mansion, calling themselves simply “Rastafari” or “Locksmen.”

The Ethiopian Connection: Kebra Nagast and Shashamane

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Kebra Nagast: “The Book of the Glory of Kings”

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[CONFIRMED] Kebra Nagast (The Glory of Kings) is a medieval Ethiopian text, dated to the 14th century, which outlines the myth of the origins of Ethiopia’s Solomonic dynasty[52].

Key elements of the narrative:

1. The Queen of Sheba and Solomon: the Queen of Sheba (in Ethiopian tradition, Makeda) visits King Solomon in Jerusalem. Solomon seduces her (or she willingly stays), and she becomes pregnant[53].
2. Menelik I: their son, Menelik I, becomes the first emperor of Ethiopia, founding a dynasty that ruled until Haile Selassie I[54].
3. The Ark of the Covenant: according to Kebra Nagast, Menelik secretly transported the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem to Axum, Ethiopia, where it allegedly remains to this day[55].

Role in Rastafari:

For Rastafari, Kebra Nagast is a sacred text confirming the divine lineage of Haile Selassie I. Selassie’s connection to King Solomon places him in direct line from biblical patriarchs to Jesus Christ (according to Christ’s genealogy in the Gospel of Matthew 1:6-16, which descends from David and Solomon)[56].

[CONFIRMED] The Ethiopian Orthodox Church considers Kebra Nagast an important but non-canonical text. The Church criticizes Rastafari for a literal reading of the myth and for ignoring its context within the Orthodox tradition[57].

Shashamane: “The Promised Land”

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[CONFIRMED] Shashamane is a city in central Ethiopia, approximately 250 km south of Addis Ababa. In 1950, Emperor Haile Selassie I granted 200 hectares (500 acres) of land in the vicinity of Shashamane for the settlement of Black people from the Western Hemisphere—a gesture of gratitude for support during the Italo-Ethiopian War[58].

History of the settlement:

• [CONFIRMED] The first Rastafarian settler was Gladstone Robinson, who arrived in June 1964[59].
• [CONFIRMED] In the 1960s-1970s, the settlement grew. At its peak, more than 2,000 Rastafari and other Black repatriates from America and the Caribbean lived there[60].
• 1974: The Derg military coup overthrows Haile Selassie I. [CONFIRMED] The new socialist regime views the settlers with suspicion[61].
• 1975: Derg land reform nationalizes approximately 80% of the land granted by Selassie. Many settlers lose land rights[62].
• [CONFIRMED] By 2004, the Rastafarian community in Shashamane had shrunk to fewer than 300 people[63].

Current State:

Today, Shashamane remains symbolically important to Rastafari, but the physical reality is far from utopian. Settlers face:

• Economic hardships: limited job opportunities, dependence on tourism and donations from the diaspora.
• Cultural disconnect: language barriers (most Rastafari do not speak Amharic), cultural differences between Jamaicans and Ethiopians.
• Religious tensions: most Ethiopians are Orthodox Christians or Muslims who do not share Rastafarian beliefs.
• Legal issues: lack of Ethiopian citizenship for many settlers, unclear legal status of land[64].

Nevertheless, Shashamane remains a place of pilgrimage for Rastafari from around the world, especially during Earthday (Haile Selassie I’s birthday, July 23)[65].

A Timeline of Transformation: From Marginalization to Globalization

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1930s: Emergence

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• 1930: coronation of Haile Selassie I.
• 1933-1934: preaching of Leonard Howell, first arrests.
• 1935: publication of The Promised Key.
• 1935-1936: Italo-Ethiopian War, intensification of Afrocentric sentiment in Jamaica.

1940s: Organization

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• 1940: founding of the Pinnacle commune.
• 1940s: emergence of dreadlocks, Nyabinghi drumming, ritual use of cannabis.
• 1941: first raid on Pinnacle.

1950s: Repression

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• 1954: large-scale raid on Pinnacle.
• 1958: destruction of Pinnacle, dispersal of Rastafari to Kingston slums.
• 1958: founding of Bobo Ashanti by Prince Emmanuel.
• [CONFIRMED] 1950s-1960s: Rastafari subjected to systematic repression in Jamaica. Police raids, arrests for cannabis possession, social stigma. Rastafari called “outlaws,” “crazy,” “dangerous”[66].

1960s: Respectability

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• 1960: University Report—an academic study of Rastafari by scholars from the University of the West Indies, which recognized Rastafari as a serious social movement rather than a band of lunatics[67].
• 1966: visit of Haile Selassie I to Jamaica, Grounation Day.
• 1968: founding of Twelve Tribes of Israel.

1970s: Globalization

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• Reggae music: in the 1970s, reggae, particularly in Bob Marley’s performances, became a global phenomenon. Marley openly professed Rastafarianism, popularizing its symbols (dreads, colors of Ethiopia, references to Jah) to an international audience[68].
• [CONFIRMED] Bob Marley’s albums Natty Dread (1974), Rastaman Vibration (1976), Exodus (1977)—commercial success and ideological impact[69].
• Rastafarianism spread beyond Jamaica—to Britain, the USA, Africa, even Japan and New Zealand[70].

1980s-1990s: The Death of God and Survival

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• 1975: [CONFIRMED] Haile Selassie I dies in detention on August 27, 1975 under mysterious circumstances (official version—complications from prostate surgery, unofficial—murder on Derg orders)[71].
• Theological crisis: Selassie’s death creates a rift among Rastafari. Some deny his death, claiming he simply “disappeared” or “returned to spiritual form.” Others acknowledge the death of the physical body but assert that his spirit is eternal[72].
• 1981: death of Bob Marley from cancer. His funeral in Jamaica draws hundreds of thousands and becomes a state event[73].
• 1990s: Rastafarianism becomes a cultural symbol, often separated from religious practice. Commercialization of Rastafarian imagery (dreads, colors, cannabis) in music, fashion, tourism[74].

2000s-Present: Recognition and Fragmentation

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• February 2002: [CONFIRMED] The Jamaican government officially recognizes Rastafarianism as a religion, guaranteeing Rastafarian prisoners constitutional rights to religious practice (including dreads and rituals)[75].
• [CONFIRMED] Jamaica’s 2011 census: 29,026 people identify as Rastafari (approximately 1% of the population)[76].
• Global estimates: [PARTIALLY] Various estimates place between 700,000 and 1 million people worldwide who identify as Rastafari or practice Rastafarian rituals[77]. Exact data is lacking due to the decentralized nature of the movement.
• Fragmentation: the spread of Rastafari in the diaspora has led to syncretic forms, blending Rastafarian elements with local African religions, Hinduism, Buddhism[78].

Conclusion: A Legacy of Paradoxes

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The history of Rastafarianism is a history of adaptation, resistance, and transformation. From a marginal Jamaican sect of the 1930s to a global cultural and religious movement of the 21st century, Rastafari has journeyed along a path filled with paradoxes:

• A prophet who rejected his followers (Marcus Garvey).
• A god who denied his divinity (Haile Selassie I).
• A promised land that did not accept its children (Ethiopia and Shashamane).
• A religion of liberation that became a commercial brand (reggae and Rastafarian aesthetics).

Yet Rastafarianism survived and continues to evolve. Its influence extends far beyond the religious sphere, touching music, politics, fashion, postcolonial philosophy, and Afrocentrism.

For millions of people worldwide, Rastafarianism remains a source of spiritual meaning, cultural identity, and resistance to oppression. Whether they literally believe in the divinity of Haile Selassie I or view him as a symbol of Black dignity, Rastafari continue to assert: “Jah lives”—Jah lives.

Related Materials

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• Overview Summary
• Ideology and Symbolism
• Music and Cultural Influence
• Cannabis in Rastafarianism
• Source Audit

Sources

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[1] Lewis, Rupert. Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1988. P. 43-45.

[2] Hill, Robert A. (ed.). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, Vol. I. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. P. lxxix.

[3] Martin, Tony. Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Dover, MA: The Majority Press, 1976. P. 125-130.

[4] Garvey, Amy Jacques (ed.). Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey. New York: Atheneum, 1992 [1923]. P. xviii-xx.

[5] Barrett, Leonard E. The Rastafarians. Boston: Beacon Press, 1997 [1977]. P. 67.

[6] Chevannes, Barry. Rastafari: Roots and Ideology. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994. P. 93-94. (Notes disagreements in dating.)

[7] Garvey, Marcus. “The Failure of Haile Selassie as Emperor”. The Black Man, Vol. 1, No. 9 (July 1936).

[8] Hill, Robert A. “Dread History: Leonard P. Howell and Millenarian Visions in the Early Rastafarian Religion”. Epoché: A Journal for the History of Religions, Vol. 9 (1981). P. 46.

[9] Marcus, Harold G. Haile Sellassie I: The Formative Years, 1892-1936. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1995. P. 125-130.

[10] Mockler, Anthony. Haile Selassie’s War. New York: Random House, 1984. P. 23.

[11] Ullendorff, Edward. The Ethiopians: An Introduction to Country and People. London: Oxford University Press, 1973. P. 59.

[12] “Ethiopia Coronated”. Time Magazine, November 10, 1930.

[13] Book of Revelation 19:16 (English Standard Version).

[14] Kebra Nagast (The Glory of Kings). Translated by E.A.W. Budge. London: Oxford University Press, 1932. Chapters 23-32.

[15] Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopians: A History. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2001. P. 187-210.

[16] There is no evidence of special mystical significance to the date of November 2. This was the traditional date for Ethiopian coronations, linked to the Orthodox calendar.

[17] Hill, Robert A. “Dread History”, op. cit. P. 30-32.

[18] Post, Ken. Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Labour Rebellion of 1938 and Its Aftermath. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978. P. 164-166.

[19] Barrett, Leonard E. The Rastafarians, op. cit. P. 81-83.

[20] Howell, Leonard P. (as G.G. Maragh). The Promised Key. Kingston, Jamaica: ~1935. (Reissued: Hill, Robert A. (ed.). The First Rasta: Leonard Howell and the Rise of Rastafarianism. Chicago: Research Associates, 2001.)

[21] Smith, M.G., Roy Augier, and Rex Nettleford. The Rastafari Movement in Kingston, Jamaica. Kingston: Institute of Social and Economic Research, University College of the West Indies, 1960. P. 8-9.

[22] Chevannes, Barry. Rastafari: Roots and Ideology, op. cit. P. 124.

[23] Homiak, John P. “Dub History: Soundings on Rastafari Livity and Language”. In: Barry Chevannes (ed.), Rastafari and Other African-Caribbean Worldviews. The Hague: ISS, 1995. P. 137-139.

[24] The Daily Gleaner (Jamaica), January 14, 1941. P. 1.

[25] The Daily Gleaner (Jamaica), May 23, 1954. P. 1, 16.

[26] Hill, Robert A. (ed.). The First Rasta, op. cit. P. 25-27.

[27] Ibid. P. 28-30.

[28] Yohannes, Okbazghi. Eritrea: A Pawn in World Politics. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1991. P. 80.

[29] Getachew, Indrias. Beyond the Throne: The Enduring Legacy of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Addis Ababa: Shama Books, 2014. P. 201.

[30] CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) Interview, 1967. Quote taken from the documentary Haile Selassie I: Emperor of Ethiopia (CBC Archives).

[31] Campbell, Horace. Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1987. P. 98-100.

[32] Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Official Statement on Rastafarianism. Addis Ababa: Patriarchate Publications, 1973.

[33] Barrett, Leonard E. The Rastafarians, op. cit. P. 145-148.

[34] The Daily Gleaner (Jamaica), April 22, 1966. P. 1.

[35] White, Timothy. Catch a Fire: The Life of Bob Marley. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2006 [1983]. P. 152-153.

[36] Planno, Mortimer. Oral history recorded in: Yawney, Carole D. “Dread Wasteland: Rastafarian Ritual in West Kingston, Jamaica”. In: N. Ross Crumrine and Marjorie Halpin (eds.), The Power of Symbols. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1983. P. 161.

[37] Barrett, Leonard E. The Rastafarians, op. cit. P. 148.

[38] Chevannes, Barry. Rastafari: Roots and Ideology, op. cit. P. 179.

[39] Owens, Joseph. Dread: The Rastafarians of Jamaica. Kingston: Sangster’s Book Stores, 1976. P. 25-30.

[40] Hopkins, Elizabeth. “The Nyabingi Cult of Southwestern Uganda”. In: Robert I. Rotberg and Ali Mazrui (eds.), Protest and Power in Black Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. P. 258-336.

[41] Chevannes, Barry. Rastafari: Roots and Ideology, op. cit. P. 157-160.

[42] Homiak, John P. “The ‘Ancient of Days’ Seated Black: Eldership, Oral Tradition and Ritual in Rastafari Culture”. PhD dissertation, Brandeis University, 1985. P. 210-240.

[43] Barnett, Michael. The Rastafari Movement: A North American and Caribbean Perspective. In: Nathaniel Samuel Murrell, William David Spencer, and Adrian Anthony McFarlane (eds.), Chanting Down Babylon: The Rastafari Reader. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998. P. 188.

[44] Ibid. P. 189-191.

[45] Lake, Obiagele. Rastafari Women: Subordination in the Midst of Liberation Theology. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1998. P. 67-70.

[46] Barnett, Michael, op. cit. P. 192.

[47] Johnson-Hill, Jack A. I-Sight: The World of Rastafari: An Interpretive Sociological Account of Rastafarian Ethics. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1995. P. 83-85.

[48] Ibid. P. 86-88.

[49] Williams, K.M. The Twelve Tribes of Israel: Rasta and the Middle Class. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Paria Publishing, 1981. P. 42-46.

[50] White, Timothy. Catch a Fire, op. cit. P. 228-230.

[51] Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel. “Introduction: The Rastafari Phenomenon”. In: Murrell et al. (eds.), Chanting Down Babylon, op. cit. P. 5.

[52] Kebra Nagast, translated by E.A.W. Budge, op. cit. Introduction, p. xv-xxiv.

[53] Ibid. Chapters 25-32.

[54] Ibid. Chapters 33-44.

[55] Ibid. Chapters 45-48.

[56] Gospel of Matthew 1:6-16 (English Standard Version).

[57] Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Official Statement, op. cit.

[58] Lockot, Hans Wilhelm. The Mission: The Life, Reign and Character of Haile Sellassie I. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990. P. 176-177.

[59] Bonacci, Giulia. Exodus! Hebrews and Rastafari in Ghana. In: Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol. 43, No. 3 (2013). P. 260.

[60] Savishinsky, Neil J. “Rastafari in the Promised Land: The Spread of a Jamaican Socioreligious Movement among the Youth of West Africa”. In: African Studies Review, Vol. 37, No. 3 (December 1994). P. 25.

[61] Eshete, Tibebe. The Evangelical Movement in Ethiopia: Resistance and Resilience. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2009. P. 108-109.

[62] Clapham, Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. P. 74-76.

[63] Bonacci, Giulia. “Shashemene, the History of a Place”. In: Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, Vol. 59, No. 1 (2004). P. 90.

[64] Ibid. P. 91-95.

[65] Chevannes, Barry. Rastafari: Roots and Ideology, op. cit. P. 182.

[66] Smith, M.G., Roy Augier, and Rex Nettleford. The Rastafari Movement, op. cit. P. 28-30.

[67] Ibid. Complete report.

[68] Steffens, Roger. So Much Things to Say: The Oral History of Bob Marley. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017. P. 220-250.

[69] White, Timothy. Catch a Fire, op. cit. P. 280-320.

[70] Savishinsky, Neil J. “Rastafari in the Promised Land”, op. cit. P. 19-50.

[71] Kapuściński, Ryszard. The Emperor: Downfall of an Autocrat. New York: Vintage, 1989 [1978]. P. 161-164.

[72] Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel, William David Spencer, and Adrian Anthony McFarlane. “The Rastafari Movement: A North American and Caribbean Perspective”. In: Chanting Down Babylon, op. cit. P. 8-10.

[73] White, Timothy. Catch a Fire, op. cit. P. 385-390.

[74] Chevannes, Barry. “The Origin of the Dreadlocks”. In: Rastafari and Other African-Caribbean Worldviews, op. cit. P. 77-96.

[75] “Rastafari Rights Upheld”. Jamaica Observer, February 10, 2002.

[76] Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Population Census 2011: Religion. Kingston: STATIN, 2012. Table 2.3.

[77] Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel. “Introduction”. In: Chanting Down Babylon, op. cit. P. 1.

[78] Savishinsky, Neil J. “Rastafari in the Promised Land”, op. cit. P. 45-48.

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