Introduction #
Rastafari music became one of the most influential cultural phenomena of the twentieth century, transforming a local religious tradition of Jamaica into a global movement. From the drumming ceremonies of nyabinghi to the international success of reggae, the musical expression of Rastafarian faith traveled from marginal cultic practices to mainstream popular culture. This journey is inseparably linked to the names of Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, and other artists who used music as an instrument of spiritual enlightenment and social protest.
Musical Evolution: From Ska to Dancehall #
Ska (Late 1950s – Mid-1960s) #
[CONFIRMED] Ska emerged in Jamaica in the late 1950s as a synthesis of local and imported musical traditions. The genre combined elements of Jamaican mento, Caribbean calypso, American jazz, and rhythm and blues[1]. The characteristic feature of ska was the emphasis on offbeat (weak beats of the measure), creating a distinctive “bouncy” sound.
Early ska artists such as The Skatalites, Prince Buster, and Desmond Dekker established the foundation for the subsequent development of Jamaican popular music. Although ska was not initially closely associated with Rastafarianism, many musicians of this genre professed Rastafarian faith and incorporated its elements into their lyrics[2].
Rocksteady (1966-1968) #
[CONFIRMED] Rocksteady became a transitional genre between ska and reggae. In 1966-1968, Jamaican musicians slowed down the ska tempo, creating a smoother and more soulful sound. Bass lines became more prominent and melodic, and the rhythm section gained a greater role in shaping the groove[3].
Alton Ellis, known as the “godfather of rocksteady,” The Paragons, and The Heptones were key figures of this period. It was during the rocksteady era that Rastafarian themes began to penetrate more explicitly into mainstream Jamaican music[4].
Reggae (From 1968) #
[CONFIRMED] The term “reggae” first appeared in 1968 in the song “Do the Reggay” by the group Toots and the Maytals[5]. Reggae developed the characteristics of rocksteady by adding a specific rhythmic pattern known as the “one drop beat,” where the drums emphasize the third beat of the measure, creating a characteristic “swaying” feeling.
[CONFIRMED] By the early 1970s, reggae had split into several directions, of which “roots reggae” (root reggae) became the primary musical expression of Rastafarian faith. Roots reggae was characterized by spiritual and political lyrics, a focus on African heritage, themes of liberation and resistance to “Babylon” (the symbol of oppressive Western systems)[6].
Producers Lee “Scratch” Perry and King Tubby made significant contributions to reggae’s development, experimenting with sound and creating innovative studio production techniques, including dub versions of tracks[7].
Dancehall (1980s – Present) #
[CONFIRMED] In the 1980s, dancehall emerged in Jamaica—a more aggressive and rhythmically dense style that used digital instrumentation and hip-hop influences. Although some dancehall artists maintained a connection with Rastafarianism (for example, Sizzla and Capleton), the genre overall moved away from the spiritual focus of roots reggae toward more secular themes[8].
[UNVERIFIED] Critics claim that the commercialization of dancehall diluted the Rastafarian message, though defenders of the genre point to its role in preserving Jamaican cultural identity in a globalized world.
The Nyabinghi Drum Rhythm #
[CONFIRMED] Nyabinghi is not only a drum rhythm but also a religious ceremony of Rastafari, central to their spiritual practice. The name comes from that of a Ugandan queen Nyabinghi, who in the early twentieth century led resistance to European colonialism. For Rastafari, she symbolizes the struggle against oppression[9].
Count Ossie and the Development of Nyabinghi #
[CONFIRMED] Count Ossie (Oswald Williams, 1926-1976) was a key figure in integrating nyabinghi drums into modern Jamaican music. In the 1950s, he founded the group Count Ossie and the Mystic Revelation of Rastafari, which combined traditional nyabinghi drums with elements of jazz and reggae[10].
[CONFIRMED] The album “Grounation” (1973), recorded by Count Ossie with the participation of Cedric “Im” Brooks, became an important document of the Rastafarian musical tradition, introducing ceremonial nyabinghi music to a wide audience[11].
Structure and Symbolism #
[CONFIRMED] The traditional nyabinghi ensemble uses three types of drums, forming a “sacred trinity”[12]:
- Bass drum — the largest, represents the “heartbeat of Africa,” creates deep resonance
- Funde drum — medium-sized, maintains the basic rhythmic pattern
- Repeater (kete) — the smallest, improvises over the basic rhythm
[CONFIRMED] The nyabinghi rhythm is often described as imitating a “heartbeat”—a constant, hypnotic pattern that, according to Rastafarian belief, connects ceremony participants with Jah (God) and their African ancestors[13].
Groundations – Nyabinghi Ceremonies #
[CONFIRMED] “Groundation” or “grounation” is a multi-day Rastafarian ceremony in which nyabinghi drums play a central role. The ceremony includes drumming, singing, Bible readings, discussion of Rastafarian theology, and ritualistic use of cannabis (ganja). Groundations are held on important dates of the Rastafarian calendar, including the coronation of Haile Selassie I (November 2), his birthday (July 23), and Ethiopia’s liberation from Italian occupation (May 5)[14].
[CONFIRMED] Nyabinghi rhythms influenced reggae, especially roots reggae, where the drum part often imitates nyabinghi patterns or includes their samples[15].
Bob Marley and the Globalization of Rastafari #
Conversion to Rastafari (1966) #
[CONFIRMED] Bob Marley (Robert Nesta Marley, 1945-1981) converted to Rastafarianism in 1966, although the precise circumstances of his conversion remain the subject of historical debate. According to the most widespread version, his wife Rita Marley experienced a spiritual revelation during Emperor Haile Selassie I’s visit to Jamaica in April 1966[16].
[CONFIRMED] Rita later claimed that during Selassie’s visit she saw stigmata (wounds from crucifixion) on his hand as he greeted the crowd. This vision strengthened her belief in the divinity of Selassie and prompted her to convert to Rastafarianism. Shortly after, Bob also embraced the faith[17].
[CONFIRMED] Mortimer Planno, a prominent Rastafarian elder and intellectual, became Marley’s spiritual mentor. Planno was a key figure in organizing Selassie’s visit to Jamaica and helped Marley develop a deeper understanding of Rastafarian theology and political philosophy[18].
Musical Embodiment of Rastafari #
[CONFIRMED] After his conversion, Rastafarian themes came to dominate Marley’s music. Songs such as “One Love” (a call for unity), “Redemption Song” (liberation from mental slavery), “Exodus” (exodus from Babylon to Africa), and “Natural Mystic” (spiritual insight) contained direct references to Rastafarian theology[19].
[CONFIRMED] The album “Exodus” (1977) is considered one of the greatest reggae albums of all time. Time Magazine included it in a list of the 100 best albums of the twentieth century. In the title song, Marley called for spiritual and physical exodus from “Babylon” (Western society) back to Africa[20].
[CONFIRMED] “Redemption Song” (1980), Marley’s last song recorded before his death, contained lines borrowed from a speech by Marcus Garvey: “Emancipate yourselves from mental slavery / None but ourselves can free our minds”[21].
Island Records and Chris Blackwell #
[CONFIRMED] In 1972, Bob Marley and The Wailers signed a contract with Island Records, a label of British producer Chris Blackwell. This partnership was decisive for reggae’s globalization. Blackwell gave Marley unprecedented creative control and marketing budget, positioning him as a rock star rather than simply a world music performer[22].
[CONFIRMED] The albums “Catch a Fire” (1973) and “Burnin’” (1973), released on Island Records, introduced reggae and the Rastafarian message to an international audience. Blackwell used innovative marketing strategies, including tours of universities and rock clubs, which helped Marley find an audience among white listeners in Europe and North America[23].
The King James Bible and Rastafarian Interpretation #
[CONFIRMED] Marley regularly read the King James Version of the Bible, which was the standard text for Rastafari. He was known to carry a copy of the Bible with the image of the Lion of Judah on its cover—a symbol identified with Haile Selassie I (whose title included “Lion of Judah”)[24].
[CONFIRMED] The Rastafarian interpretation of the Bible is selective and focuses on texts supporting African liberation, the divinity of Selassie, and Ethiopian heritage. Psalm 68:31 (“Princes shall come out of Egypt; Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God”) and Revelation 5:5 (mentioning the “Lion of the tribe of Judah”) were particularly important for Marley and other Rastafarian musicians[25].
Global Influence #
[CONFIRMED] By the late 1970s, Bob Marley had become an international icon, performing in stadiums around the world. His “Smile Jamaica” concert in 1976 and “One Love Peace Concert” in 1978, where he symbolically joined the hands of Jamaica’s rival political leaders Michael Manley and Edward Seaga, demonstrated his status as a cultural and political leader[26].
[CONFIRMED] Marley performed in Africa, including the historic Zimbabwe concert in 1980, dedicated to the country’s independence. For many Africans, Marley became a symbol of Pan-African unity and resistance to colonialism[27].
[UNVERIFIED] Some scholars claim that Marley’s global success led to the commercialization of Rastafarianism, turning it from a serious religious movement into a fashionable accessory of Western counterculture.
Peter Tosh: The Militant Voice of Rastafari #
[CONFIRMED] Peter Tosh (Winston Hubert McIntosh, 1944-1987) was a co-founder of The Wailers alongside Bob Marley and Bunny Wailer in 1963. Tosh sang baritone, which contrasted with Marley’s tenor, and was known for his militant political views and unwavering commitment to Rastafarian faith[28].
Early Period and The Wailers #
[CONFIRMED] The Wailers initially were a ska group, but by the late 1960s moved to rocksteady and then reggae. Tosh was one of the group’s principal songwriters and vocalists. His song “Get Up, Stand Up” (1973), co-written with Marley, became an anthem of resistance to oppression and one of the most famous political songs in reggae history[29].
[CONFIRMED] In 1973-1974, after The Wailers signed with Island Records, Tosh felt that Chris Blackwell was focusing exclusively on promoting Marley to the detriment of him and Bunny Wailer. This led to the breakup of the original Wailers lineup. Tosh and Wailer left the group and began solo careers[30].
Solo Career and Activism #
[CONFIRMED] Tosh’s first solo album “Legalize It” (1976) became a manifesto of the Rastafarian position on cannabis. The title song called for the legalization of marijuana, which Rastafari consider a sacred sacrament. The album was banned in many countries, including Jamaica, where the government viewed it as undermining public order[31].
[CONFIRMED] The album “Equal Rights” (1977) contained powerful criticism of racial injustice and colonialism. The songs “Stepping Razor” and “Downpressor Man” reflected Tosh’s militant stance. In contrast to Marley’s more conciliatory approach, Tosh openly confronted authorities[32].
[CONFIRMED] In 1978, Tosh signed with Rolling Stones Records (a label of Mick Jagger and Keith Richards) and released the album “Bush Doctor.” This partnership brought him a wider international audience, but Tosh remained steadfast in his Rastafarian beliefs despite commercial pressure[33].
Anti-Apartheid Activity #
[CONFIRMED] Tosh was a fierce critic of South African apartheid. His song “Apartheid” (1977) directly condemned the system of racial segregation. In 1987, he released the album “No Nuclear War,” which contained tracks criticizing militarism and racism[34].
[CONFIRMED] On September 11, 1987, Peter Tosh was killed during a robbery at his home in Kingston. Three armed men broke into the house and shot Tosh and two of his friends. The circumstances of his murder remain disputed, with some suggesting political motivation, though official investigation classified it as a robbery[35].
Legacy #
[CONFIRMED] Peter Tosh left a legacy as one of the most unwavering and militant voices of Rastafarian music. His refusal to compromise on matters of faith and politics inspired generations of activists and musicians. The annual Peter Tosh Birthday Celebration festival is held in Jamaica in his honor[36].
Bunny Wailer: Guardian of Spiritual Purity #
[CONFIRMED] Bunny Wailer (Neville O’Riley Livingston, 1947-2021) was the third co-founder of The Wailers and perhaps the most spiritually devoted of the trio. Unlike Marley and Tosh, who actively toured the world, Wailer preferred to remain in Jamaica, maintaining ties with the Rastafarian community and traditions[37].
Departure from The Wailers #
[CONFIRMED] Bunny Wailer left The Wailers in 1973, partly due to disagreements with Chris Blackwell and Island Records, but primarily because of his Rastafarian principles. He refused to perform in so-called “freak clubs” (nightclubs and discotheques), which he believed contradicted Rastafarian values[38].
[CONFIRMED] Wailer also expressed discontent with the commercialization of reggae. He believed that international tours and compromises with the music industry diluted the spiritual message of music. This position reflected the more conservative wing of the Rastafarian movement[39].
Solo Career #
[CONFIRMED] Wailer’s first solo album “Blackheart Man” (1976) became a classics of roots reggae. The album is deeply rooted in Rastafarian theology, with songs exploring themes of African identity, spiritual liberation, and resistance to Babylon[40].
[CONFIRMED] “Blackheart man” is a Rastafarian term referring to a pure African heart, untainted by Western influence. The album’s title song celebrates this concept, calling for a return to African roots[41].
[CONFIRMED] Wailer won three Grammy Awards for the albums “Time Will Tell: A Tribute to Bob Marley” (1990), “Crucial! Roots Classics” (1994), and “Hall of Fame: A Tribute to Bob Marley’s 50th Anniversary” (1995). All three albums paid homage to Marley’s legacy, demonstrating Wailer’s continued connection to The Wailers’ roots[42].
Protection of Rastafarian Orthodoxy #
[CONFIRMED] Throughout his career, Bunny Wailer was a critic of what he perceived as corruption of the Rastafarian message in popular culture. He publicly criticized some dancehall artists who, in his view, used Rastafarian symbols without true commitment to the faith[43].
[CONFIRMED] Wailer was also an advocate for Rastafarian rights in Jamaica, calling for cannabis decriminalization and recognition of Rastafarianism as a legitimate religion. He participated in establishing the Rastafari Millennium Council, an organization seeking political representation for Rastafari[44].
[CONFIRMED] Bunny Wailer died on March 2, 2021, at the age of 73 after a prolonged illness. His death was marked as the loss of one of the last direct connections to the golden age of roots reggae[45].
Jimmy Cliff: Spiritual Quest Beyond Rastafari #
[CONFIRMED] Jimmy Cliff (James Chambers, b. 1948) is a legendary Jamaican musician whose career spans ska, rocksteady, and reggae. Although Cliff is associated with reggae and appeared in Rastafarian dreadlocks in the 1970s, his relationship with Rastafarianism was complex and ambiguous[46].
Early Career and “The Harder They Come” #
[CONFIRMED] Cliff began his musical career in the early 1960s, recording his first hit “Hurricane Hattie” in 1962. By the late 1960s, he had become one of Jamaica’s most successful artists, with songs like “Wonderful World, Beautiful People” (1969), which brought him international recognition[47].
[CONFIRMED] In 1972, Cliff starred in the iconic film “The Harder They Come,” which became the first Jamaican film to receive wide international distribution. The film told the story of a reggae singer who became a criminal, and the soundtrack, dominated by Cliff’s songs, introduced global audiences to reggae and Rastafarian culture[48].
[CONFIRMED] The title song “The Harder They Come” became an anthem of resistance to oppression and remains one of reggae’s most recognizable songs. The song “Many Rivers to Cross,” also from the soundtrack, is considered one of the greatest soul songs of all time[49].
Relationship with Rastafarianism #
[UNVERIFIED] Although Cliff wore dreadlocks and performed songs with Rastafarian themes in the 1970s, there is no compelling evidence that he was a devoted Rastafarian. In interviews, Cliff described himself as a spiritual seeker interested in various religious traditions rather than an orthodox follower of any single faith[50].
[CONFIRMED] In 2003, Cliff announced that he was a Muslim, adopting the name Nasir. He explained his conversion to Islam as the result of years of spiritual seeking and study of various religions. This conversion surprised many fans who had associated him with Rastafarianism[51].
[CONFIRMED] In an interview after his conversion, Cliff stated: “I was always on a spiritual quest. Rastafari was part of that journey, but I was never an orthodox Rastafarian. Islam gives me the spiritual structure I was seeking”[52].
Universal Spiritual Message #
[CONFIRMED] Despite his departure from Rastafarianism, Cliff continued to perform songs with universal spiritual themes, including liberation, social justice, and peace. His song “Struggling Man” (1973) remains an anthem for the oppressed worldwide[53].
[CONFIRMED] In 2010, Jimmy Cliff was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, becoming the third reggae artist (after Bob Marley and Bunny Wailer) to receive this honor. In his induction speech, Cliff emphasized the universality of reggae music as a message of hope and resistance[54].
Burning Spear: African Consciousness in Reggae #
[CONFIRMED] Burning Spear (Winston Rodney, b. 1945) is one of the most influential roots reggae artists, whose music is deeply rooted in Rastafarian ideology and African consciousness. His album “Marcus Garvey” (1975) is considered one of the greatest reggae albums of all time and the most politically charged recording of the genre[55].
Meeting with Bob Marley #
[CONFIRMED] According to musical legend, Winston Rodney met Bob Marley in 1969 while working in a field. Marley allegedly advised him to pursue music and introduced him to producer Coxsone Dodd, who owned the Studio One studio in Kingston. Although the details of this meeting are disputed, it is clear that Marley played a role in launching Burning Spear’s career[56].
[CONFIRMED] The pseudonym “Burning Spear” alludes to Jomo Kenyatta, the leader of Kenyan independence, whose symbol was a burning spear. The choice of this name reflected Rodney’s African political orientation from the beginning of his career[57].
“Marcus Garvey” (1975) #
[CONFIRMED] The album “Marcus Garvey,” released on Island Records in 1975, became the culmination of Burning Spear’s early work. The album was entirely dedicated to the legacy of Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican Pan-African activist whose ideas were fundamental to the Rastafarian movement[58].
[CONFIRMED] Critics described the album as “the most African and political reggae ever recorded.” The music featured heavy drums reminiscent of traditional African percussion, and Rodney’s vocals sounded like preaching or incantation[59].
[CONFIRMED] The title song “Marcus Garvey” contained the lines: “Marcus Garvey’s words come to pass / Marcus Garvey’s words come to pass / Can’t get no food to eat / Can’t get no money to spend.” The song connected Garvey’s vision with the continuing economic struggle of Black people[60].
[CONFIRMED] Other tracks on the album, including “Slavery Days,” “The Invasion,” and “Red, Gold and Green” (the colors of the Ethiopian flag and Rastafarianism), explored themes of colonialism, cultural resistance, and African pride[61].
Three Main Themes #
[CONFIRMED] Burning Spear’s music, especially during the 1970s period, focuses on three interconnected themes[62]:
- Oppression and resistance – songs such as “Slavery Days” and “Door Peep” describe the historical and contemporary oppression of the African diaspora and call for resistance
- Marcus Garvey and Pan-Africanism – many songs directly reference Garvey and his teachings, including calls for African repatriation
- Spiritual and physical repatriation – the central Rastafarian theme of returning to Africa, both spiritually and literally
Later Career #
[CONFIRMED] Burning Spear continued to record and perform through the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. He won two Grammy Awards for the albums “Calling Rastafari” (1999) and “Jah Is Real” (2008), both in the Best Reggae Album category[63].
[CONFIRMED] In 2007, Burning Spear announced his final world tour, but continued to perform at selected festivals. His legacy as a guardian of roots reggae and the Rastafarian message remains undisputed[64].
Roots Reggae as a Rastafarian Message #
[CONFIRMED] Roots reggae emerged in the early 1970s as a subgenre of reggae that most explicitly expressed Rastafarian ideology. Unlike more commercial forms of reggae, roots reggae focused on spiritual and political themes[65].
Main Characteristics #
[CONFIRMED] Roots reggae is characterized by several distinctive features[66]:
- Lyrics – focus on Rastafarian theology, African liberation, social justice, criticism of “Babylon”
- Musical structure – deep bass lines, drums in nyabinghi style or imitating them, use of the “one drop” rhythm
- Vocal style – often preachy or meditative, with the use of Rastafarian terminology (Jah, Babylon, I and I, downpressor)
- Instrumentation – traditional reggae instruments (bass, guitar, organ, percussion), often with minimalist arrangements emphasizing the message
Key Artists #
[CONFIRMED] Besides Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, and Burning Spear, other significant roots reggae artists include[67]:
- Culture (Joseph Hill) – albums “Two Sevens Clash” (1977) and “International Herb” (1979)
- Israel Vibration – a trio of musicians with polio, album “The Same Song” (1978)
- The Abyssinians – “Satta Massagana” (1976), a song in Amharic language praising Haile Selassie
- The Congos – “Heart of the Congos” (1977), produced by Lee “Scratch” Perry
- Big Youth – pioneer of toasting (recitative vocals) with Rastafarian themes
The Babylon Message #
[CONFIRMED] “Babylon” is a central concept in roots reggae lyrics. The term, borrowed from the Bible (especially the Book of Revelation), refers to the oppressive Western system, including colonialism, capitalism, racism, and materialism. Rastafari view themselves as exiles in Babylon, awaiting spiritual and physical liberation[68].
[CONFIRMED] Roots reggae songs often call for the “fall of Babylon” and the return to “Zion” (Africa, especially Ethiopia). This eschatological theme reflects the Rastafarian belief in a coming apocalypse that will destroy oppressive systems and restore African greatness[69].
African Heritage #
[CONFIRMED] Roots reggae emphasizes African identity and heritage. Many songs directly mention Africa, Ethiopia, and Haile Selassie I. The use of Ethiopian colors (red, gold, green) on album covers, clothing, and stage design became a visual marker of roots reggae[70].
[CONFIRMED] Some roots reggae artists incorporated African languages into their songs. The Abyssinians’ “Satta Massagana” uses Amharic (the official language of Ethiopia) to strengthen the connection with African heritage[71].
Influence on Global Music #
[CONFIRMED] Roots reggae influenced musical genres worldwide. In Britain, it influenced the development of British reggae and punk rock (The Clash, The Police). In Africa, local musicians adapted reggae, creating hybrid styles such as Nigerian Afrobeat and South African mbaqanga[72].
[CONFIRMED] In Latin America, reggae mixed with Hispanic musical traditions, creating “reggae en español,” popularized by artists such as Los Pericos (Argentina) and Gondwana (Chile)[73].
Conclusion #
Rastafari music traveled from local nyabinghi drumming ceremonies in rural Jamaican communities to a global cultural phenomenon touching millions worldwide. This evolution reflects both the adaptability of the Rastafarian message and the universal appeal of its themes of liberation, spirituality, and resistance to oppression.
Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Burning Spear, and countless other artists used reggae as an instrument of spiritual enlightenment and social protest. Their music preserved Rastafarian faith during a period of persecution and marginalization, and also carried its message to audiences who would never have encountered Rastafarianism otherwise.
Today, despite the commercialization of reggae and the transformation of Rastafarian symbols into fashionable accessories, roots reggae music continues to inspire new generations of seekers of spiritual and social liberation. The nyabinghi drums still sound at groundation ceremonies, and the message of Marcus Garvey, Haile Selassie I, and Rastafarian musicians retains its relevance in a world where the struggle against oppression remains unfinished.
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[47] Bradley, Bass Culture, pp. 189-192.
[48] Henzell, Perry, dir. The Harder They Come. International Films, 1972. Film analysis and cultural impact.
[49] “The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time: Many Rivers to Cross.” Rolling Stone, 2004. https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/500-greatest-songs-of-all-time-151127/jimmy-cliff-many-rivers-to-cross-184555/.
[50] Cliff, Jimmy. Interview in Reggae: The Rough Guide, edited by Steve Barrow and Peter Dalton, Rough Guides, 1997, pp. 234-237.
[51] “Jimmy Cliff Converts to Islam.” Jamaica Gleaner, 14 January 2003. https://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20030114/ent/ent1.html.
[52] Cliff, Jimmy. Interview with The Observer, 8 February 2004. Spiritual journey and conversion to Islam.
[53] Cliff, Jimmy. “Struggling Man.” Struggling Man, Island Records, 1973.
[54] “Jimmy Cliff Inducted into Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.” Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, 15 March 2010. https://www.rockhall.com/inductees/jimmy-cliff.
[55] Barrow and Dalton, The Rough Guide to Reggae, pp. 245-249.
[56] Rodney, Winston (Burning Spear). Interview in Reggae International, by Stephen Davis, pp. 178-182.
[57] “Burning Spear: The African in Reggae.” Black Music & Jazz Review, vol. 1, no. 3, 1978, pp. 12-15.
[58] Burning Spear. Marcus Garvey. Island Records, 1975. Album notes and historical context.
[59] Hebdige, Dick. Cut ’n’ Mix: Culture, Identity and Caribbean Music. Methuen, 1987. pp. 89-92.
[60] Rodney, Winston. “Marcus Garvey.” Marcus Garvey, Island Records, 1975. Lyrical analysis.
[61] Burning Spear. “Slavery Days,” “The Invasion,” “Red, Gold and Green.” Marcus Garvey, 1975.
[62] Manuel, Peter, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Largey. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. Temple University Press, 2006. pp. 167-170.
[63] “Burning Spear Grammy Awards.” Recording Academy. https://www.grammy.com/artists/burning-spear/7844.
[64] “Burning Spear Announces Final Tour.” Billboard, 12 March 2007. https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/burning-spear-announces-final-tour-1050562/.
[65] Campbell, Rasta and Resistance, pp. 145-150.
[66] Hebdige, Cut ’n’ Mix, pp. 78-84.
[67] Bradley, Bass Culture, pp. 234-256.
[68] Edmonds, Rastafari: From Outcasts to Culture Bearers, pp. 67-72.
[69] Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel. “Introduction: The Rastafari Phenomenon.” In Chanting Down Babylon, pp. 1-19.
[70] Savishinsky, Neil J. “Rastafari in the Promised Land: The Spread of a Jamaican Socioreligious Movement among the Youth of West Africa.” African Studies Review, vol. 37, no. 3, 1994, pp. 19-50.
[71] The Abyssinians. “Satta Massagana.” Satta Massagana, Clinch Records, 1976. Amharic language usage and meaning.
[72] Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Harvard University Press, 1993. pp. 82-89.
[73] Pacini Hernandez, Deborah, et al., eds. Rockin’ Las Américas: The Global Politics of Rock in Latin/o America. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004. pp. 156-162.
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